zero tolerance policing advantages and disadvantages

So far, the bullying has taken the form of humiliation and verbal abuse, but today it gets physical, and his tormentors attack the child. Problem-oriented policing (POP) means diagnosing and solving problems that are increasing crime risks, usually in areas that are seeing comparatively high levels of crime (e.g., "hot spots"). The Kansas City Gun Experiment . Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 10(1):147-154. KvT)NKgDX_gv5(P"4F%v.]6oo,!b(D\|(Zj! Gateway Neighborhood Recovery Project, Los Angeles County Sheriff's Office, These findings suggest that, when considering a policing disorder approach, police departments should adopt a "community co-production model" rather than drift toward a zero-tolerance policing model, which focuses on a subset of social incivilities, such as drunken people, rowdy teens, and street vagrants, and seeks to remove them from the . While there is evidence that low-level disorder, if not addressed, can lead to other disorders and crimes, research has failed to find convincing evidence of the long-term sequence of events originally put forward in the broken windows theory. 10. Bottoms (2012) and Welsh and others (2015) provide overviews of the literature on broken windows. You may need to make special efforts to inform potential offenders about the heightened risks of apprehension: do not assume they obtain or process information about police activity in the same way as the general public might. That is this strategy demands a longer process that can take time to be effective. Racine Police Department, 1999, The 1. Within a few years of Zero Tolerance, however, crime had dropped from between 30 50%. Educators must be educated about how to enforce these policies accurately. Journal of Criminal Justice 22(5):437-444. 0000039200 00000 n If labelling theory is correct, once labelled as a criminal, these people will find it very hard to get jobs in the future. 'The relationship between disorder, perceived risk, and collective efcacy: a look into the indirect pathways of the broken windows thesis'. Police also posted fliers on storefronts, on electrical boxes, on planters, on windows, at bus stops, and in places identified as drug-dealing sites. It focuses more on classroom disruption than the needs of the child involved. Zero Tolerance and Aggressive Policing (And Why To Avoid It) Quick Guide, >Zero Tolerance and Aggressive Policing (And Why To Avoid It) In Depth, View the zero tolerance and aggressive policing strategy guide, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1982/03/broken-windows/304465/, Braga, Anthony A., Brandon C. Welsh, and Cory Schnell, Can Policing Disorder Reduce Crime? Street-Level Narcotics Enforcement . [Full text]. (2015). Aerial Response Team (DART), Washington State Patrol, 2009, El Police departments, in the past twenty years, have adopted a theory that says by controlling minor disorders serious crimes can be reduced. Operation Hot Pipe's goal was to destroy the perception that University Avenue was a safe and suitable environment for crack users. Indianapolis : Crime Control Policy Center, Hudson Institute. Zero Tolerance and Aggressive Policing (And Why to Avoid It) in Depth In this essay: Alternative 1: Enforcement Against Fear-Generating Behavior Alternative 2: Enforcement Against Violence-Enabling Behavior Alternative 3: Improvements to the EnvironmentFixing Actual Broken Windows Alternative 4: Sanctions for Those Who Engage in Violence (2015). There is a student pretending to use a weapon. fare, commissioned the Zero Tolerance Task Force to ex-amine the evidence concerning the academic and behav-ioral effects of zero tolerance policies. <<555DA4556DB0B2110A00A0B7B0C2FE7F>]/Prev 618227>> 441 0 obj Some users left the area altogether. For further information about establishing repeat offender programs, see Spelman (1990). Prostitutes, like drug dealers, sometimes adapt to crackdowns by devising new ways to negotiate transactions (e.g., via beepers and cellular telephones). [Full text], Jacobson, J. Please limit your note to 200 characters. Heres what happened: the girls grandmother sent a birthday cake to the school to celebrate her special day. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents( \n h t t p s : / / d i g i t a l c o m m o n s . Carr, A., J. Schnelle, and J. Kirchner (1980). 0000004637 00000 n [Full text]. Target Anti-Crime Response Team, Broward County Sheriff's Department, 2002, Street (2015). <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents()/Rect[129.5947 613.5 176.0693 624.5]/StructParent 5/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> Thousand Oaks , Calif. : Sage. By aggressive it is meant that police make extra efforts to take official action, not that they are hostile or rude to people they contact. (1974). [Full text] [Briefing Note], McGarrell, E., S. Chermak, and A. Weiss (1999). Criminology and Public Policy, 15(1), pp 31-56. Zero tolerance policies were created to prevent school shootings because they gave school districts some leverage in sending home students caught with a deadly weapon on campus. endobj Nevertheless, the approach undoubtedly has the potential to work, although in this instance the consolidation served only to prolong the impact of the initial crackdown, rather than offer a sustainable solution. Drug crackdowns raise the nonfinancial costs of dealing and buying: increasing the time it takes dealers and buyers to find one another and make a deal, increasing the risks of getting arrested, and increasing the risks of having drugs confiscated.65 Dealers become less willing to sell to strangers, thus changing an open drug market into a closed one; this can reduce some of the disorder associated with open drug markets. 'What Caused the Crime Decline?' Operation Crackdown ( London), Newark Foot Patrol Experiment Police Foundation (n.d.). Reduction at Low Income Housing Development, El "The Effect of the Police on Crime." Burns, L., and C. Coumarelos (1993). It could even be part of a bullying effort, whether the young child realizes it or not. You think you know whats in there, but then feel shocked to know that you agreed to something that you didnt like in the first place. This initiative was not a conventional crackdown in that it had many elements to it and was highly focused on known offenders, but clear threats of enhanced enforcement were communicated to target offenders, and in some cases carried out. Zero Tolerance Policing P.N. Police and researchers believed that an area's burglary rate is directly proportional to the number of burglars operating in that areathat is, the supply of burglars drives burglary as much as the demand for stolen goods does. endobj Thirdly, Zero Tolerance might be racist in consequence somewhere in the region of 85% of people dealt with under Zero Tolerance in New York were/ are black or Hispanic. Road Project, Northumbria Police (Northumbria, UK), 2004, The One of the primary reasons why there is such resistance to these rules is that parents dont take the time to read through their guidebooks given to them by the school. Another application of Zero Tolerance is the ASBO you can get an ASBO for antisocial rather than criminal behaviour, and go to jail if you breach it, thus ASBOs police minor acts of deviance. Some zero tolerance policy rules may be discriminatory. Crackdowns might also be effective by reducing the numbers of potential offenders and victims coming into contact with one another. Gardens, San Diego County Sheriff's Department, 2002, Kingscote : Program in Criminal Justice Policy and Management, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University . Zero Tolerance Can Hurt the Victim of Bullying Consider this scenario: A child has been bullied for quite some time. Sousa W and Kelling G. (2006). Heroin users made nervous by crackdowns might rush intravenous drug use; use unclean needles; use the drug in remote places where they might not be found if they overdose; hide the drug in body cavities, increasing the risk of accidental overdose or infection; and more carelessly discard used syringes.71 When buyers and sellers become more wary of one another due to a crackdown, the risk of violence can increase. A key example is the Kansas City Gun Experiment (Sherman and Rogan, 1995), a crackdown on illegal gun carrying. In 1994, the federal government passed the Gun-Free Schools Act, which requires schools to expel any student who brings a gun to campus. Thats why they typically involve guns, drugs, or actions that are sexually threatening like talking about raping a classmate. While recognising the language of ZTP can send out a powerful rhetorical message, Bratton has said it oversimplifies the complexity of policing and suggests an overzealous approach. From a problem-oriented perspective, there is a world of difference among these various crackdowns. Washington , D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. Among the factors you should consider are the characteristics of the drug sellers, the drug users, and the drug market (including the physical environment); and community attitudes toward the police and drug dealing.68, Drug crackdowns can displace at least some of the market to other locations (or from outdoors to indoors), or cause some buyers to move to new drug markets altogether. Campbell, D., and H. Ross (1968). Karen Walker and Principals' Partnership, Zero tolerance: Advantages and disadvantages. Novak, K., J. Harman, A. Holsinger, and M. Turner (1999). Or publicity about a crackdown in a target area might cause offenders simply to avoid that area and commit crimes elsewhere. : An Assessment of the Evidence." See the response guide on Street Closures [Full text]for further information about the effects of street design on crime and disorder. or may report innovative projects. Washington , D.C. : U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice. The advantages for community policing is that both the officer and citizens get to come in accordance with reducing crime and increase the security in the community and neighborhoods. Drug Use and Drug Programs in the Washington Metropolitan Area. Haulgh: Managing Prostitution, Regenerating the Community, The Cohen and Ludwig (2002); Sherman (1997); Sherman and Rogan (1995); Sherman (1990); Matthews (1990). Even if you can save your employment, there is a good chance that you wont get paid for the time spent dealing with that situation. Without some follow-up court intervention or measures to change the environment, intensive enforcement campaigns only temporarily interrupt street prostitution, or move it elsewhere; they do not shut down a street prostitution market entirely.76. Cajon and University Avenue Traffic Accident Reduction, San Diego Police A police officer is not going to want to hear excuses and neither should an educator. %PDF-1.7 % In D. McKenzie and C. Uchida (eds. 2. 'The Oxford Handbook of Criminology' (fifth edition). 'Crime is Down in New York City: Blame the Police'. trailer 0000003424 00000 n <> e d u / c r i s s c r o s s)/Rect[256.7559 306.0678 470.623 317.7084]/StructParent 7/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> <>/Metadata 431 0 R/Outlines 102 0 R/Pages 424 0 R/StructTreeRoot 107 0 R/Type/Catalog/ViewerPreferences<>>> (1974) http://www.policefoundation.org/pdf/kcppe.pdf [PDF], McGarrell, E., Chermak, S. and Weiss, A. Detail the two most important benefits and the two pitfalls of such an approach to policing. Sampson and Cohen (1988); Wilson and Boland (1978). We hope that this toolkit has made clear that being proactive in preventing crime does not (and should not) simply mean zero tolerance and aggressive policing. Crackdowns, together with other responses designed to help street prostitutes quit their trade and to alter the environmental conditions in which prostitution flourishes, have been demonstrated to be effective in reducing prostitution and related crime.74, To be fair and effective, crackdowns should target both prostitutes and their clients. Children get a taste of what discipline is like for those who are over the age of 18. Priest, T., and D. Carter. Policing Today (September):34 - 36. The first zero tolerance policies were developed in the 1990s in the United States as a response to school shooting incidents that occurred. It also runs the risk of damaging police-community relations, both locally and even at the national level. 'Disorder policing to reduce crime: a systematic review'. The plausibility that this action led to reductions in offending is then examined. A common motivation is that the existence of even low-level offenses implies that an area is not well controlled, which in turn will lead to people committing more-serious crimes there. One of the main advantages of zero tolerance policing is its effectiveness in reducing crime. endobj The consequences given to students are usually harsh, involving either suspension or expulsion, and it can sometimes be for misconduct issues that are relatively minor. It is also important for us to remember that kids will joke about things all of the time. 37 A broader problem-oriented approach showed considerable success in reducing prostitution-related robberies.38 Drug crackdowns can help reduce robbery where users rob to finance their purchases.39. This type of policy prepares students for the real world. See the problem-specific guide on Drug Dealing in Privately Owned Apartment Complexes [Full text] for a discussion of the different challenges presented by open and closed drug markets. Proponents of zero tolerance rules say that the consistency of this reaction is the reason why it is such an effective approach to school discipline. For further information on reducing gun-related crime, see the problem-specific guide on Gun Violence Among Serious Youth Offenders [Full text]. "Sobriety Checkpoints, American Style." Another disadvantage is the disciplinary actions resulting from applying zero-tolerance policy such as suspension and expulsion affects school climate and cause the school ratings to drop. The original broken windows policing article (Kelling and Wilson, 1982) called for crackdowns on signs and indicators that crime is welcome in an area. Combat uniforms and military-style gear and weaponry, designed to better protect officers as well as convey an image of seriousness, can also heighten fear among casual observers. [X|ZeJ-b'E,Go\mL\[6S{)Hbq:'q\_u?ha{o_yy\k5K-Z|F./ Y-y*V9@gt]UtsV.{!.ut^jua(s[{_Zv }Lte^XTQ n5Ev!8|PmV#60g,{ibVP#qf;%tCo? With the The result was a 49-percent drop in gun crimes in the actioned area in comparison with a control area. Modern Policing and the Control of Illegal Drugs: Testing New Strategies in Two American Cities. Wilson, J., and G. Kelling (1982). Gateway Neighborhood Recovery Project, Middlesbrough's Crackdowns, generally defined, take many different forms. "An Evaluation of Operation Roundup: An Experiment in the Control of Gangs to Reduce Crime, Fear of Crime, and Improve Police Community Relations." 444 0 obj Operation Weekend: A Report on Cases Arrested in the Times Square Sweeps of July 15, 1983 -Oct. 9, 1983 . The American Psychological Association reports that parents overwhelmingly support the implementation of a zero tolerance policy. Smith (2001), citing Sampson and Cohen (1988). ), The Modern Gang Reader . Or worse, prosecutors may choose not to prosecute the cases at all. Washington , D.C. : Police Executive Research Forum. See Connors and Nugent (1990) for a discussion of how these factors affect the choice of drug enforcement tactics. American Journal of Police 9(1):43-74. One user walked into jail and was handed a flier, and as the arresting officers left, they heard the prisoner reading the flier to other inmates. In J. Miller, C. Maxson, and M. Klein (eds. Kennedy, D. (1993). : Program in Criminal Justice Policy and Management, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University . Chermak, S., E. McGarrell, and A. Weiss (2001). endobj Among them are, Some crackdowns emphasize police visibility only, whereas others emphasize enforcement action. Mazerolle L, Soole D and Rombouts S. (2007). ), Policing and Community Partnerships . Consolidating Police Crackdowns: Findings From an Antiburglary Project . Crackdowns can reduce crime and disorder in two ways: by increasing the certainty that offenders will be caught and punished more severely than usual, or by increasing offenders' perceptions that they are more likely to get caught and punished. 465 0 obj In S. Stevens (ed. [Full text], Zimmer, L. (1990). Critics would point out that using ones imagination is a healthy approach to life. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents( \n h t t p s : / / d i g i t a l c o m m o n s . >Zero Tolerance and Aggressive Policing (And Why To Avoid It) Quick Guide, View the zero tolerance and aggressive policing essay and references. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(2), pp 379-420. Street Sweep, Arizona Department of Public Safety, 1999, Project That said, it is understandable why there is a great deal of support for zero tolerance: Some marquee policing interventions that have been labeled as zero tolerance (or, more broadly, as broken windows) are not. Proponents say that the use of a zero tolerance policy makes it possible for schools to keep the learning environment safer for students. He was new to the school, joined the class late, and would often display self-harm behaviors while in class including banking his head on the walls. Often, crackdowns help reduce problems to more manageable levels, which gives longer-term responses a better chance to take hold. The rationale behind the ASBO stems from the right realist (right wing/ new right/ neoliberal view of the causes of crime they hold the individual responsible for crime, seeing the individual as making a rational choice to commit crime if people believe the reward of committing crime outweighs the risk of getting caught and the cost of the punishment, they will commit crime ZT addresses this by increasing the punishments for minor crimes. Schools should not be the catch-all solution for every family, but they can be a resource to help kids find the help they need instead of brandishing them as a troublemaker. Reducing burglary by crackdown and consolidation. The sixth-grader was in the districts gifted-and-talented program. Davis, R., and P. Mateu-Gelabert (1999). In dealing with illicit drugs, it is a clear statement of intent, though in policing there can be considerable ambiguity in this term. 0000032060 00000 n Other students might feel threatened by this behavior. They may use undercover or plainclothes officers working with uniformed police, and may involve other official actions in addition to arrests. Now take this incident from the perspective of the school. Xie M. (2014). Theft from Motor Vehicle Initiative, Cleveland Police Department Aitken, C., D. Moore, P. Higgs, J. Kelsall, and M. Kerger (2002). In Sherman, L., D. Gottfredson, D. MacKenzie, J. Eck, P. Reuter, and S. Bushway . In: Maguire M, Morgan R and Reiner R, eds. For the purposes of this guide, a crackdown is generally defined as follows: Sudden and dramatic increases in police officer presence, sanctions, and threats of apprehension either for specific offenses or for all offenses in specific places. Moving prostitution indoors is a form of displacement, but it is generally preferable to the problems street prostitution causes. 'Zero tolerance' is the label for a form of policing that was introduced quite independently but at just about the same time in New York, under its mayor Rudolph Giuliani, and in Hartle-pool under DCI Ray Mallon. It removes offenders from the classroom and allows administrators to act quickly with discipline based on school policies. Advantages of Broken Windows Troublesome juveniles may also analyse to clean up their act. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents(Physical Sciences and Mathematics Commons)/Rect[437.0039 285.2797 526.75 296.9203]/StructParent 10/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> Boydstun, J. e d u / c r i s s c r o s s / v o l 4 / i s s 1 / 7)/Rect[138.0107 188.0297 409.4023 199.6703]/StructParent 13/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> R esearch on displacement has found that it is not an inevitable result of crime prevention, and that even when it does happen, it is less than 100%. Policing Pubs: Evaluation of a Licensing Enforcement Strategy . The Impact of a Police Crackdown on a Street Drug Scene: Evidence From the Street. See Cohen and Ludwig (2002) and Smith (2001) for examples of crackdown cost-effectiveness analyses. In a case that spanned more than four years, judges in Maryland upheld the suspension of a 7-year-old boy who was suspended for chewing his breakfast into the shape of a gun and pretending to shoot classmates with it. <>/Border[0 0 0]/Contents(Masthead Logo Link)/Rect[72.0 648.0 126.0 707.5]/StructParent 1/Subtype/Link/Type/Annot>> <>stream Thats why you can see suspensions sometimes for nail clippers or rubber bands. Any American who pays attention to law enforcement has heard of the strategies: "broken windows," "stop and frisk," "zero tolerance." These are all variations on what's broadly known as "proactive . Thousand Oaks , Calif. : Sage. Socioeconomic Planning Sciences 27(2):119-130. The first three fall under the umbrella of problem-oriented policing, and the fourth falls under the umbrella of focused deterrence. Cohen, J., and J. Ludwig (2002). Park 2004, Lancashire Constabulary, 2005, Kingsway At first, the users did not believe officers, but it did not take long before the habitual ones began offering information to avoid arrest; officers arrested them anyway. New York: Manhattan Institute for Policy Research. Officers used an undercover, reverse-sting operation, arresting buyers for solicitation. Measuring the numbers of stops, searches, arrests, etc., made during a crackdown, and the sanctions imposed on offenders, is important for understanding the degree to which the crackdown was actually applied, but these are measures only of the process, and not of the outcomes crackdowns are intended to achieve. "Problem-Oriented Policing: Actions and Effectiveness in San Diego ." ); searching vehicles and interviewing drivers at roadblocks or checkpoints; and. These techniques include the following: Tip: Talking to community members to find out crime-generating problemstips are in the problem-oriented policing strategy guideto identify which behaviors are making community members afraid. In addition to officer wages, crackdowns generate higher costs for booking prisoners, processing arrest files, and processing cases through the legal system, and may incur new equipment and training costs. Social Sciences; Psychology; Psychology questions and answers; describe and provide advantages and disadvantages of community policing and zero tolerance policing and identify and describe why which policing style is better .please provide a detailed , congruent and university level answerthank you This study documents the impact of a police crackdown on a street heroin market in a suburb of Melbourne, Australia, as perceived by individuals involved in the market. New York: Brennan Center for Justice, NYU Law School. Kim J, Bushway S and Tsao HS. Zero tolerance policies developed in the 1990s, in response to school shootings and general fears about crime. Phoenix, South Wales Police, 2004, Operation In the Kansas City Gun Experiment, for example, the focus area had close to the highest level of gun crime in the city. Zero tolerance policies work to create a safe learning environment. "Broken Windows: The Police and Neighborhood Safety." 2. Submission for the Herman Goldstein Award for Excellence in Problem-Oriented Policing . (by special unit and patrol officers); short-term undercover work and buy-busts; reverse stings; vehicle seizures; use of confidential informants; code enforcement; neighborhood cleanups; demolition of abandoned buildings; heavy media coverage; visible response to every citizen complaint; encouragement of anonymous complaints, with promises to protect complainants' identities; mobile booking stations to speed up arrests; parked marked units in middle of drug markets; uniformed patrol through the markets; removal of shade covering dealers; use of expedited nuisance abatement procedures; provision of police beeper numbers to citizens so they could feel more assured of anonymity; confiscation of stashed drugs from citizen tips; arrests for loitering for the purpose of drug dealing (and conspicuously posted warning signs); trespass authority arrests, Yes, visible drug dealing declined significantly, but the study was unable to determine which particular tactics were the most effective; there was some evidence of declines in overall crimes, calls for service, and drug-related homicides, No, evidence of high level of community support from both majority and minority communities, High-volume arrests for drug dealing and other offenses, No, but there was some evidence that the overall crime rate declined, and the study concluded that local drug crackdowns were worthwhile, 100 officers conducted buy-busts; checkpoints established; door-to-door searches of residences; media publicity; neighborhood cleanups; code enforcement, No, there were no significant reductions in overall crime, calls for service, or drug-related crime, Intensive drug enforcement through high- visibility patrol (stopping, questioning, and frisking motorists, bicyclists, and pedestrians); buy-busts (targeted in hot spots); crack house raids; compared with door-to-door interviews with residents to discuss drug problems and a drug hotline, Mixed results: there was some positive effect on violent crimes but not on burglary and robbery; there were positive effects on citizen perceptions of safety, drug dealing, and police services, Yes, evidence of spatial displacement, but police shifted crackdown to new areas, Surveillance; informants; informant buys; buy-busts; anonymous drug tip line, No, there was some evidence of suppression of the heroin market in one location, but the overall effect on markets and crime was limited, Yes, some evidence drug buyers easily shifted to drug market in nearby city, Four to six narcotics officers surveilled known drug-dealing locations, questioned buyers and sellers, made arrests for possession, used informants for buy-bust arrests, and executed search warrants on drug houses; hotline for anonymous tips was established and publicized, Yes, there was a significant decrease in the volume and flagrancy of the retail heroin market; there was some evidence that heroin use declined; there was an 85% increase in the demand for drug treatment; reported robberies declined by 18.5%, burglaries by 37.5%, and crimes against the person by 66%, Unknown if there was displacement to other types of drugs; one year after the crackdown, burglaries stayed down and robberies continued to decline, No, high citizen satisfaction with results, The study acknowledges some success in disrupting street drug markets, but it focused more on the negative consequences of crackdowns, Yes, some spatial displacement to indoor locations and other neighbor-hoods, Street drug markets (heroin, crack, marijuana), Street drug markets (powder cocaine and Dilaudid), Intensive drug enforcement (buy-busts, reverse buys, vehicle forfeiture, media coverage of arrests), compared with two other responses: door-to-door surveys of residents about drug problems, and establishment of police substation, Mixed results: there was no measurable reduction in drug trafficking, but there were positive effects on citizen perceptions of police and crime problems; there were some measurable crime reductions, Street-level drug enforcement (undercover drug buys, search warrants, buy-busts, reverse stings, surveillance arrests, vehicle safety checks), followed by community revitalization, There was some evidence of effectiveness; there was a dramatic decrease in drive-by shootings; the study concludes that geo-graphically contained areas are more favorable for crackdowns, Intensive enforcement against prostitutes, clients, pimps, and brothel operators, combined with road closures, Yes, prostitution and serious crime declined significantly; the sense of public safety increased; crime reporting rates increased, No, actually improved police-community relations, Intensive enforcement of low-level offenses by patrol officers, combined with sanctions of the Midtown Community Court, Yes, the incidence and prevalence of street prostitution significantly declined; some stroll areas disappeared almost entirely; there was little evidence that many prostitutes quit the trade, however, Yes, evidence of spatial displacement to outer boroughs; evidence of target, method (prostitutes switched from walking to driving around), and temporal displacement, Variety of responses in a problem-oriented policing project, including arrests of prostitutes, Yes, there was a significant reduction in the number of street prostitutes and prostitution-related robberies, Intensive traffic enforcement (compared with normal and below- normal levels), Variety of responses (28 different ones); aggressive order maintenance, Some spatial displacement of property crimes, but most crimes and calls for service not displaced. Problem-Solving: Problem-Oriented Policing in Newport News . Area Cadillac/Corning Neighborhood Project, Department of Justice COPS Response Center, Yes, spatial displacement to adjacent precincts, No, but had a positive effect on public perceptions of safety, No, increased citizen satisfaction with police, No, did not reduce robbery or auto theft or have any measurable effect on traffic crashes, High volume of traffic stops in drug market areas; aggressive traffic enforcement; field interviews; street- level drug enforcement; follow-up investigation of arrestees; case- building, Yes, reduced burglary in three out of four districts; reduced robbery in one out of four; reduced auto theft in all four (by 43%, 50%, and 53% in three districts), while the citywide crime rate was climbing, Saturation patrol (four times the normal level, and 30 times the normal level of "slow patrol"), Yes, reduced nighttime, but not daytime, burglary; concluded that the crackdown was not cost-effective, All crimes (specially intended to reduce crimes considered suppressible: burglary; street and commercial robbery; assault; auto theft; thefts from yards, autos, or buildings; DUI; possession of stolen property or weapons; and disorderly conduct), Aggressive traffic enforcement, especially of speeding, signal violations, seat belt violations, DUI, and license and registration violations; from 140% to 430% increase above normal levels, Mixed results: there were significant reductions in Part I crimes (mainly burglary and larceny) in three out of four target areas, but there was less evidence of a significant impact on assaults and Part II offenses, Yes, but the effect was modest; concluded the crackdown was not cost- effective, Subway patrol by Guardian Angels (private patrol force), No, but there was a short-term reduction in citizen fear, Overtime to put 655 additional officers in the seven highest crime beats in the city; high-visibility patrol; hot-spot monitoring; zero tolerance; problem-oriented approaches, Yes, there were significant reductions in UCR Index crimes, No displacement; some diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Assault, malicious damage to property, and offensive conduct, Regular but unpredictable visits to licensed premises to check for breaches of licensing laws, Raids; arrests of burglary suspects; seizure of stolen property, West Yorkshire, England (Boggart Hill area), Targeted and intensive enforcement against known burglars, followed by repeat victimization reduction efforts (target hardening, educating elderly potential victims of burglary by deception) and youth outreach programs, Yes, there was a significant reduction in burglary and repeat victimization, No evidence of spatial displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to other types of crime (auto theft), Intense intermittent patrol at known hot spots (100% increase in patrol time at hot spots), Yes, there was a modest effect (25% less disorder at hot spots), Identification and analysis of drug hot spots; engagement of business owners and citizens in crime control efforts; increased pressure on open-air markets (through drug enforcement, code enforcement, license regulation), maintained by patrol, Yes, there were consistent and strong impacts in reducing disorder-related emergency calls for service, but there was no impact on violent or property offenses, No evidence of displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Enforcement of truancy and curfew laws; high- visibility patrol, with lots of stops and frisks by six to eight officers in areas where gangs hung out, Yes, there were significant reductions in gang violence, Two alternative interventions: 1) increased traffic enforcement on major arteries, with lots of stops of limited duration (general deterrence strategy); 2) traffic stops of suspected gang members and drug dealers, of longer duration, with more investigation and vehicle searches, Yes, the second intervention tactic resulted in significant reductions in gun-related crimes, aggravated assault, and homicide; there were no similar reductions resulting from the first intervention tactic, Little evidence of displacement; no evidence of geographic diffusion of benefits; modest evidence of residual deterrence effects 90 days after intervention, No, evidence of high level of public support both before and after intervention, Intensive enforcement of gun- carrying laws (Terry stops, searches incident to arrest, car stops and searches, plain-view searches,); door-to-door solicitation of tips; police training to interpret gun-carrying cues; field interviews in known gun crime hot spots, Yes, there was a 49% reduction in gun crimes in the target area during the intervention period, compared with the prior 29-week period; there were declines in both drive-by shootings and homicides; there was no apparent effect on total calls for service, other violence calls, property offenses, or disorder; the community became less fearful of crime and more satisfied with the neighborhood, Yes, modest spatial displacement; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to two adjoining beats, Extra dedicated police patrols on high-crime days of week and times of day for 14 weeks; traffic and pedestrian stops and searches; targeting of hot spots and times based on crime analysis, Yes, reduced shots fired by 34% and hospital-treated assault gunshot injuries by 71%, No evidence of temporal or spatial displacement; residual deterrence effects lasted about two weeks, No, no reported citizen complaints against police, Locating, cutting down, and burning marijuana plants; asset seizure and forfeiture; drug enforcement, No (but the methodology limited the findings), Public disorder (street cruising, loud music, and public drinking), Liquor license agents issued citations for open containers and other alcohol violations; local police parked police cars at intersections to monitor cruising; lasted for one month in 10-by-12- block area; no media publicity, Extra police patrols put on subways from 8 PM to 4 AM ; nearly every station and train had a uniformed officer on duty; total transit system police force increased by 250%, Yes, minor offenses and felonies declined significantly due to increased patrol, but at substantial extra cost (about $35,000 per felony crime prevented); there was some question as to whether police reporting procedures accounted for some of the claimed reduction, No displacement; residual deterrence effects for eight months, Robbery, burglary, grand theft, petty theft, auto theft, assault/ battery, sex crimes, and malicious mischief/ disturbances, Yes (there was some evidence that burglary, petty theft, and malicious mischief/disturbances are the most suppressible), Stiffer sanctions for speeding convictions: 30-day license suspensions for first offense, 60 for second, indefinite for third, Not definitive; the overall conclusion was that the crackdown was a substantial enforcement effort, but some of its effects were mitigated in practice, Speeding and other traffic problems, crime, and disorder and blight, Saturation patrol by about 30 officers/agents from various agencies; about 10 times the normal level of police activity in the area; traffic unit focused on traffic problems; alcohol agents worked bars; sheriff's deputies supervised inmates doing community service; traffic arrests increased tenfold; police made highly visible arrests in well-traveled parking lot at major intersection, Yes, there was some evidence of a modest effect on reported crime; unable to measure the effect on traffic crashes (weak evaluation), Regular patrol supplemented by specialized units (10 times the normal level); field interviews; citations; surveillance; arrest of street drug dealers and buyers; high-visibility presence (including setting up a mobile police command post); code enforcement; cleanup; public works repairs; trimming of foliage, Yes, total reported Part I offenses and violent crime declined significantly (by 92%) during the crackdown period and rates were unchanged in the comparison area; Part I property crimes and calls for service declined, but not significantly, No spatial displacement of crimes, but significant displacement of calls for service to adjacent areas; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas; residual deterrence effects lasted about six months, Buy-busts and high police visibility in hot spots with high mobility; vehicle seizures and confiscations; initial crackdown operation never lasted longer than 90 days in an area, but maintenance crackdowns occurred as necessary; initiative claimed to incorporate community involvement and interagency collaboration to address drug market conditions, but there is little evidence this occurred, There was a limited impact; there was an immediate benefit, but conditions returned to normal soon after the TNTs left; there were no measurable effects on public perceptions of crime, quality of life, or police-community relations; there was some increase in fear because drug dealing moved indoors to apartment hallways; there were some positive effects in making drug markets less visible in the target blocks, Yes, some displacement to indoor locations, No, some evidence community was largely unaware of crackdown in their neighbor-hood; community leaders generally supportive of crackdown, Operation Pressure Point (two smaller Pressure Point operations conducted in subsequent years), 240 uniformed officers on foot patrol to disperse crowds; increased arrests; field interviews; warnings and parking tickets; searches; mounted park patrols; canine units to clear buildings; surveillance and buy-busts; anonymous tip lines; raids on dealing locations; asset forfeiture; increased likelihood of conviction and severity of sentences; custodial arrests made instead of citing and releasing; additional responses to address environmental conditions, Yes, the search time for drugs increased; there was a reduction in heroin-related street activity; there were reductions in selected crime rates: burglary (37%), robbery (47%), grand larceny (32%), and homicide (62%); the neighborhood was revitalized; there was an increased demand for drug treatment, Mixed evidence: one study reported no spatial displacement, another reported displacement to other areas in and around city; some evidence of diffusion of benefits to adjacent areas, Observation by four 10-officer teams; arrests for drug dealing, public drinking, etc. London ), pp 31-56 numbers of potential offenders and victims coming into contact with another! 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